Word Formation and Parts of Speech (part1)

 Word Formation and Parts of Speech (part1)

A.      Common endings

Nouns for things = ment; -ity; -ness; -ion

Nouns for people = -er; -or; -ist

Verbs = rarely have special endings because they get manipulated for tense; usually the shortest word form

Adjectives = -ous; -able/-ible; -al; -ed/-ing; -ful/-less; -ic; -ive

Adverbs = -ly

1.       To form an adverb, add –ly to the adjective form (not the noun/verb form)

2.       If two word forms are the same, it will usually be the noun and verb (e.g.: parent, answer, guess).

3.       Nouns ending in –tion will usually take the –al suffix for adjectives.

BE CAREFUL: these are patterns, not “rules,” and there will be some exceptions to most of these patterns.

Knowing the correct part of speech for a word form is important, but it’s less than half the battle. The real challenge comes with being able to know how to use it appropriately in a sentence. Below are some (but definitely not all) of the most common usage patterns.

                                               

                                                           B.     The Prediction Was Predictably Predicted

Nouns

Nouns are people, places, or things.

Nouns always come before verbs and after verbs.

Every sentence will have at least one noun.

Nouns are usually in these positions:

a/an/the ……               The prediction came true.

adjective ……               Wrong predictions are dangerous.

Possessive (my, your, his, her, John’s) …..  Their prediction was wrong.

have …..                      I have a prediction.

…………. Verb            Predictions make people’s lives easier.

Verbs

Verbs show the action or state of being in a sentence.

Verbs usually aren’t the first word in a sentence.

Exception—Commands: (Go to class.)

EVERY sentence MUST have a verb!

Verbs are usually in these positions:

Subject  ……………….        Jessica predicted that she would win the game yesterday.

Adverb ……………….           He always predicts the weather.

can/should/might/must …………………        She can’t predict what he will do.

didn’t/don’t …………………        Don’t predict something unless you know it is true.

to ………………….                         I’m going to predict your future.

Adjectives

Adjectives describe nouns (people, places, and things).

They answer the question: “What kind of person/place/thing?”

Adjectives are usually in these positions:

am/is/are/was/were …………………   The game was predictable.

………………………….. noun            Predictable people are easy to understand.

very …………………………..          Tony is a very predictable person.

adverb ………………………..       Tony is always predictable.

a/an/the ………………………………. noun        The predictable answer was “yes.”

Adverbs

Adverbs describe verbs or adjectives.

They answer the question “How did he do it?”

Usually, you add -ly to the adjective to make an adverb (but not always!)

Adverbs are usually in these positions:

_____________________ ,    …………               Predictably, Tommy was late again.

__________________ Verb                                He predictably walked in late.

Verb __________________                                He walked quickly.

very _________________                                    He walked very quickly.

________________________ Adjective           Tom is predictably late.

B.      Prefixes

a- – without, not

co- – together

de- – opposite, negative, removal, separation

dis- –opposite, negative

en- – cause to be

ex- – former, previous, from

in- – negative, not

non- – absence, not                 

re- – again, repeatedly

un- – negative, not, opposite, reversal

D. Suffixes

-able – sense of being

-er – agent

-ful – characterized by

-fy – make, become, cause to be

-ism – action or practice, state or condition

-less – lack of

-ly – -like

-ology – study, science

-ship – condition, character, skill

-y – characterized by, inclination, condition

E. Grammatical Form Retaining Derivation

verb to verb: appear → disappear

noun to noun: friend → friendship

adjective to adjective: practical → impractical

F. Grammatical Form Changing Derivation

verb to noun: preserve → preservation

verb to adjective: bore → boring

noun to verb: code → codify

noun to adjective: nature → natural

adjective to noun: ugly → ugliness

adjective to verb: sweet → sweeten

adjective to adverb: quick → quickly

EXERCISES

A.      Forming nouns form verbs

This exercise focuses on people and their jobs using the most common suffixes.

Use the word in bold to form the noun which refers to the person who does that job.

1. A person who acts for a living is called an .......... .

2. A ………………..... is someone who earns money from writing music.

3. She didn't become famous as a ………………...... until her 17th novel was published.

4. In Part 5 of the FCE Exam your speaking ability will be assessed by the ………………….... .

5. At the end of the interview the .................... asked if he could be shown around the company.

6. An ......................... is someone who will be able to go through your accounts and work out how much money you have.

7. ……………..... to the castle are expected to come during visiting times only.

B.      This exercise focuses on the common prefixes and suffixes used to form opposite words.

in-          im-         il-            un-         -less      dis-        ir-

1 When he became a teenager he wanted to be more …………………….(DEPENDENT) from his parents.

2 It was really (HONEST)………………… of you to take that money without asking.

3 If you hadn't been so…………………………….. (CARE) with that book you'd still have it now.

4 My broken leg means I'll be…………………………….. (ABLE) to go on holiday with you.

5 In many countries it is………………………… (LEGAL) to smoke cigarettes under the age of 16.

6 He waited …………………….(PATIENTLY) for the train to arrive at the station.

7 The teacher told me it was……………………. (RESPONSIBLE) of me to set off the fire alarm.

C.      Forming verbs

This exercise looks at some common suffixes used in creating verbs.      -en             -ify                 -ize

1. He told her that he (SYMPATHY) .......................... with her problem but couldn't do anything to help.

2. My belt feels a bit tight after that huge lunch. I think I'll have to (LOOSE) .......................... it a little.

3. She was severely (WEAK) ........................... by the long illness she had.

4. There are many different ways to (CLASS) ............................... areas of English Grammar.

5. If you're really sorry for what you said you won't mind (APOLOGY)................................  

6. There's no need to (CRITIC) ........................... my work. I'm trying as hard as I can.

7. The pain in his back (LESS) ........................ as soon as he took the medication.

8. Everybody was (HORROR) ........................ by the news of the earthquake.

Forming adjectives and adverbs

D.      This exercise looks at the most common adjective and adverb endings. For questions 5-8 you will need to make TWO changes to the stem word.

1. Be sure to contact him if you need advice. He's a very (HELP) .......................... person.

2. It was a really (ENJOY) ......................... party. Thanks for inviting me.

3. He has just taken out a (MONTH) ................... subscription to the magazine.

4. She smiled (HAPPY) ........................ when they offered her the new job.

5. (HOPE) .......................... we'll have enough money saved to get married next year.

6. In order for the medicine to work (EFFECT) ........................... you must take the correct amount

7. Although our teacher is very strict in class, she is (FRIEND) ........................ than you would expect.

8. What a beautiful vase! That's the (LOVE) ............................ present I've ever had.

E.       Forming other nouns

This exercise looks at forming nouns from verbs, nouns and adjectives by using suffixes.

1. My teacher says there has been a big (IMPROVE) ...................... in my English lately.

2. The recipe says you only need to add two (SPOON) .......................... of salt.

3. Why did you do that? I thought you had more (INTELLIGENT) ......................... than that.

4. The singer gave a brilliant (PERFORM) ............................ on stage yesterday.

5. Have you seen her magazine (COLLECT) .....................? She must have over 200 editions.

6. On hearing the news, everyone was overcome with a feeling of (SAD) ......................... .

7. When you take the FCE Speaking paper you will be given marks for your (ACCURATE) ......................... and also on how fluent you are.

8. She has the (ABLE) ........................ to pass the exam first time round providing she works hard.

F.       Difficult spellings

1 He tried to fix his machine but it was (POSSIBLE) .......... impossible  /   inpossible

2 You don't need to wear a suit to the party. You can look (FORMAL) .......... if you wish.

Informal    /          imformal

3 She won the bicycle race (EASY) .......... .

Easyly  /    easily

4 The weather forecast says it's going to be (RAIN) .......... today. Rainy   /      rainny

5 The body was discovered (LIE) .......... on the floor. Lieing  /    lying

6 He told her that he was (TRUE) .......... in love with her.             Truely   /     truly

7 She was filled with (HAPPY) .......... when she heard the good news.      Happiness   / happyness

8 He was the (BIG) .......... in the class.

   Biggest  /  bigest

Grammar: The subjunctive

Grammar: The subjunctive

Grammar: the subjunctive. Where and what is it?

Every language has developed over time. Modern English is simpler than older versions but contains some features from the past. With ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘it’, the verb form might occasionally surprise you.

We do many things with language apart from talking about simple facts. For example, we make suggestions and requests and express doubt and wishes. In English, you can often do these things using modal verbs but you can also use verbs in the subjunctive mood.

Traditionally, people have said that English has three moods: the imperative, the indicative and the subjunctive. When you learn English at school, you probably focus on the indicative mood e.g. ‘John eats an apple.’ or  ‘John ate an apple.’

When you speak, you will often use the imperative mood e.g. ‘Please give me the dictionary.’ However, we also use the subjunctive mood but it is rather hidden. Alternatively, you could say that, in most cases, it has disappeared from English and that today we simply use the base form of the verb rather than a special verb ending!

Let’s look at a sentence giving some medical advice to a patient:

‘It’s necessary you take the tablets three times a day.’

You might not realise but this sentence contains a subjunctive verb form. The verb is ‘take’ but its spelling with ‘you’ is the same as the infinitive, the imperative (Take your drugs!) and most of the present tense/indicative (I take my drugs every day.).

However, with ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘it’ we can see a difference:

‘It’s necessary he take the tablets three times a day.’ (subjunctive)
‘He takes his drugs every day.’ (present indicative)

We can also see a difference in how the negative is constructed (the subjunctive is without ‘do’):

‘I recommend he not take his drugs more than three times a day.’ (subjunctive)
‘He doesn’t take his drugs more than three times a day.’ (present indicative)

Also, with the verb ‘be’ the subjunctive is more obvious:

I suggest I be allowed to leave (passive subjunctive)
I suggest you be more careful next time. (subjunctive)
I suggest he be more careful next time. (subjunctive)

When we talk about a situation that is not possible, we can use ‘were’. 

E.g.

‘If I were you, I would be more careful next time’ (This does not refer to past time!). However, more informally and especially in conversation, many people don’t use the subjunctive form and just say:

‘If I was you, I would be more careful next time’

The subjunctive in conditional sentences 

The following refer to what is unreal or not the case. Note that the time reference is not the past: 

If I were you. I would tell him.
If I had the time, I still wouldn’t do it.
If I spoke Chinese, I’d know what was going on.

As mentioned above, in modern English, modal verbs are very often used when expressing ‘subjunctive meanings’ and are often used with subjunctive verb forms in conditional sentences that express unreality e.g.

If I had £10,000, I would buy a sports car.
I you had told me, I could have helped.
Had I known, I would have done something.

Used with ‘wish’ (referring to an unreal situation):

I wish I had a job. (You don’t have one)
I wish I worked in London. (You don’t)
I wish I were younger. (You’re not)

In the examples above, apart from when ‘be’ is used, there is no difference in spelling between the past subjunctive and the past simple.

Adjectives, verbs and formality

At this point I should say that in modern English we have many ways to express advice, demands etc and the subjunctive is only sometimes used. Choosing to use the subjunctive often makes your English more formal or traditional. Please also note that it is more common in American English.

Some adjectives that have a ‘subjunctive meaning’ can be followed by verbs in the that mood but other ways are possible which are not so formal:

It’s vital/essential/important/desirable (that) she co-operate (Usually rather formal) or
It’s vital/essential/important/desirable (that) she should co-operate (With ‘should. Usually a little formal) or
It’s vital/essential/important/desirable (that) she co-operates (Present simple. Usually less formal)

It is the same with some verbs:

We insist/suggest/recommend/demand (that) he see a doctor (Usually rather formal) or
We insist/suggest/recommend/demand (that) he should see a doctor (With ‘should. Usually a little formal) or
We insist/suggest/recommend/demand (that) he sees a doctor (Present simple. Usually less formal)

Some expressions which include the subjunctive:

‘be that as it may’ This expression means that the facts are not important or they won’t change your mind e.g.

A. Tom is a lovely guy.
B. Be that as it may, I’m not going to invite him to my party.

‘so be it’ This means you accept a situation as it is e.g.
If he wants to waste his money on those ridiculous clothes, so be it.

‘far be it for/from me’  This is used to say you don’t want to criticise someone but then do e.g.
Far be it for me to criticise but shouldn’t you check your information one more time?

SPEAKING , B2-C2 PART 1

SPEAKING , B2-C2

Accepting facts

It's common knowledge that...

It's a fact (that)..

Anyone will tell you..

Everybody knows that...

It's a well-established fact that

Few people would deny that..

It's no secret that...

I think we can all accept / agree that..

It is generally assumed that...

It has been scientifically proven that..

Advice and Suggestions

I reckon you should stop now

Why don't you stop now?

How about stopping now?

If I were you, I'd stop now.

I suggest you stop now

You'd (really) better stop right now.

I would strongly advise you to stop

My advice would be to stop now

It might be a good idea to stop

You might try stopping

Agreeing With People

I'm with you on that one.

I couldn't agree more.

Yes, absolutely.

I'd go along with that.

You've got a point there.

Hear, hear !

I think so too.

I couldn't have put it better myself.

Great minds think alike.

You took the words right out of my mouth

Apologizing

Sorry.

I'm (so / very / terribly) sorry.

Ever so sorry.

How stupid / careless / thoughtless of me.

Pardon (me)

That's my fault.

Sorry. It was all my fault.

Please excuse my (ignorance)

Please don't be mad at me.

Please accept our (sincerest) apologies.

Asking about future plans

What are you doing tomorrow?

Got any plans for tomorrow?

What's your plan for tomorrow?

Are you doing anything tomorrow?

What's on the cards for tomorrow?

Busy tomorrow?

Have you got anything on tomorrow?

Have you got anything planned for tomorrow

What's happening tomorrow?

How's tomorrow looking?

Asking for approval

Do you think it's all right to do it?

What do you think about (me doing that)?

Do you think / reckon I ought to (do it)?

What would you say if I (did it)?

Would you approve of (doing something)?

What is your attitude to the idea of...

Are you in favour of (me doing something)?

You are in favour of ... aren't you?

Do you think anyone would mind if I...

Would it be really awful if I...

Asking for help

Can you give me a hand with this?

Could you help me for a second?

Can I ask a favour?

I wonder if you could help me with this?

I could do with some help, please.

I can't manage. Can you help?

Give me a hand with this, will you?

Lend me a hand with this, will you?

Could you spare a moment?

I need some help, please.

Asking people to wait

Hang on a moment / a mo.

Give us a second.

Half a moment / a mo.

I'll be right with you.

Sorry, I'm a bit tied up right now.

Wait and see.

You'll just have to be patient.

Give me a chance.

Don't be so impatient.

We wish to apologise for the delay to..

Asking somebody's opinion

What do you think of...?

What do you think about...?

How d'you feel (about...)?

What d'you reckon (about...)?

What's your opinion of...?

(What do think about) that?

What are your views on...?

Where do you stand (on...)?

What would you say to... / if we...?

Are you aware of.....?

Attitude to the future

I'm (really / so) looking forward to..

I can't wait until...

I'm counting the days till...

Roll on...

I've set my heart on...

I'm saving up to...

Sooner or later I'll get round to...

One day, I'm going to have to...

I'm trying to put off... as long as I can

I'm (really) dreading...

Avoiding giving information

No comment.

I'm not at liberty to say.

Wait and see.

Let me get back to you.

I'm sorry, that's confidential.

(Sorry) That's personal.

I'd rather not talk about it.

Mind your own business.

Never you mind.

I'll tell you when you're older.

Bad people

A crook

A villain

A scum bag

An evil witch

A heartless bastard

A nasty piece of work

A psycho / psychopath

A totally ruthless (person)

A creep

A two-faced cow

Being An Expert in English

He knows all about photography.

He's a camera expert.

He's an expert on digital cameras.

There's nothing he doesn't know about X

He knows photography inside out.

You wouldn't believe what he knows about X

He's a walking encyclopaedia of X

Photography's his subject.

He knows it from A - Z.

He's an authority on digital cameras.

Being Lucky

t's a good thing (that)..

It's just as well...

Fortunately, / Luckily,

As luck would have it...

That was a stroke of luck.

It's lucky...

It's very/most fortunate (that)...

That was a close thing / near miss

It must be your lucky day!

You lucky thing! / You jammy bastard!

Being old

old and wise

over the hill

past it

pushing ninety

in her nineties

a pensioner / OAP / senior citizen

getting a bit long in the tooth

in my twilight years / second childhood

losing her marbles / going senile

an old codger / an old biddy

Being poor

He's short of cash / hard-up

She's got cash-flow problems

They were destitute

He's on the bread line

She's in debt / overdrawn / bankrupt

He's doing a minimum-wage job

Low-income families

She's on the dole

Below the poverty line

Those less fortunate than ourselves

Being relieved

Phew!

Thank God (for that)!

What a relief!

I'm so relieved to hear that.

You had me worried (there / for a moment).

That's a weight off my mind.

You've no idea what a relief it is to hear

That's one less thing to worry about.

What a stroke of luck!

(Oh well.) All's well that ends well!

Being rich

A wealthy person

A comfortably-off person

High-earning / Top-earning executives

She's well-off / well-heeled

I'm not short of a bob or two

He's rolling in it

They're filthy rich

They're a bit nouveau-riche

A millionaire friend of mine...

Fat cats

Being sure / certain

I'm quite sure...

I'm absolutely positive...

I'm fairly / quite certain...

It must be right.

I know...

It's definitely...

You can be sure...

I've no doubt at all that...

I'm a hundred percent certain that...

I'm (utterly) convinced...

Being worried

I'm (so) worried about..

I'm afraid...

I can't help thinking...

I can't stop thinking about it.

I've been worried sick about...

It's been keeping me awake at night.

I'm scared stiff / to death that...

I'm really nervous.

I've got butterflies in my stomach.

I'm absolutely dreading..

Boring!

How boring / tedious / dull !

What a bore!

It bores me to tears.

It leaves me cold.

It does nothing for me.

It's as dull as ditch-water.

I can't see what all the fuss is about.

It's as interesting as watching paint dry

I'm afraid I don't share your enthusiasm..

I can't say that I find it interesting.

Changing Your Mind

(Actually,) I've changed my mind.

On second thoughts...

Come to think of it...

I've had a change of heart.

Hang on a minute / a second.

I've had a bit of a rethink.

Did I really say that?

What was I thinking?

On reflection...

After further consideration...

Cheering People Up

Cheer up! / Chin up!

Smile!

It's not the end of the world.

Worse things happen at sea.

Look on the bright side........

Every cloud (has a silver lining).

Practice makes perfect.

There are plenty more fish in the sea.

Lighten up!

There's no use crying over spilt milk.

Complaining about hypocrisy

Look who's talking!

You can talk!

That's rich, coming from you!

That's the pot calling the kettle black.

I seem to remember, not so long ago...

Yeah, and you're so much better

And you're so squeaky clean.

Take a look in the mirror sometime.

People in glass houses...

Says Mr. Perfect.